Table 1
Synthesized theoretical framework of undercounting and overcounting
| Dimension | Factor | Reduces undercounting through… | Scholarly work sorted by year |
| 1) Personal | a) Social Capital | …social trust and cooperative attitude | Putnam (1995); Heyneman, (2000); Letki (2006); Brick and Williams (2013) |
| b) Social Exchange | …non-economic exchanges of intangible social satisfaction | Homans (1958); Dillman et al. (2009) | |
| 2) Geographical | c) Easiness-to-reach | …easy access to people intended to be approached | Martin and de la Puente (1993); Martin (2007) |
| d) Accuracy in MAF | …including all households for accurate planning and implementation of the Census | Mahler (1993); Kissam (2017); Kissam et al. (2018) | |
| 3) Census features | e) Marketing strategies | …encouragement of people to participate | West and Fein (1990); Bates (2017) |
| f) Int/tech accessibility | …easing people’s participation | West and Robinson (1999); Sinclair et al. (2012); Olson et al. (2021) |
Note: A deeper examination of surveys’ nonresponse and undercounts in the U.S. Census is presented by Tourangeau and Plewes (2013) and (O’Hare, 2019).